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Proof progress is measured as volume increase relative to the initial dough volume, tracked in an aliquot jar rather than by clock time. A doubling is 100% increase, or an expansion ratio of 2. Rate per hour lets the finish time be projected from an intermediate reading.
Volume increase
Increase % = (final volume - initial volume) x 100 / initial volume; expansion ratio = final / initial
Because fermentation rate depends on temperature, yeast vigour, flour and salt. An aliquot jar reads the dough's actual state, which is why professional bakeries use them.
The gluten network can no longer hold the gas, so the loaf collapses in the oven and the crumb becomes coarse and gummy. Over-proofed dough also tastes excessively acidic.